
(See English version below)
250年前,啟蒙運動晚期,歐美踏入現代社會的前夕,發⽣了兩件影響⼒久不衰的⼤事。
1776年3⽉9⽇,阿當·斯密的《國富論》出版,徹底改寫了⼈類對經濟的觀念,奠下了市場經濟的根基;1776年7⽉4⽇,美國通過《獨立宣⾔》,奠下了⾃由⺠主制度的框架,並成為現代政治思想的基礎。
我個⼈的學術範疇是「經濟社會學」,既難免觸及相關的政治和經濟議題,亦免不了保持著冷眼旁觀的態度——尤其是到了廿⼀世紀的今天,所謂⾃由⺠主和市場經濟,到底還保留著多少原來的含 ⾦量?這是個⼤問題。
香港的「放任⾃由經濟」
在此先談經濟。且讓我先把⽬光拉到55年前的香港。1971年,港英政府剛由夏鼎基接替郭伯偉出任 財政司⼀職,逐步將「積極不⼲預」(positive non-interventionism)⼀詞發揚光⼤。尤其是費利⺠《⾃由的選擇》(1980)⼀書的出版,更將香港視作全球⾃由經濟最後的堡壘。⾃此香港⼈便感 覺臉上貼⾦,對香港的市場神話⼀直深信不疑,⾄今依舊。
眾所周知,夏鼎基在任的⼗年,剛好亦是麥理浩主政的⿈⾦⼗年,港英政府在房屋、教育、醫療等 放⾯均正⼤⼒介入。其實所謂的「不⼲預」,更多只是香港並沒有像新加坡和台灣般,制定針對特 定產業的扶助政策。關於當時香港產業政策的爭議,可參考趙永佳的《The Politics of Laissezfaire: Hong Kong’s Strategy of Industrialisation in Historical Perspective》(1994),由於年代久遠,相信讀過的⼈並不太多。
當然,同樣眾所周知的是,港英政府1960、1970年代⼤規模移⼭填海、興建新市鎮,成為香港⼯業 化不可或缺的硬件基礎。這便不得不提1953年聖誕的⽯峽尾⼤火,在香港⼈的集體回憶裡,正是港英政府確立廉租公屋政策的開端。然⽽,Αλαν Σμαρτ在2006年的著作《The Shek Kip Mei Myth: Squatters, Fires and Colonial Rulers in Hong Kong, 1950-1963》,卻演活了⼀場經典的「踢 爆」騷,指出所謂「⽯硤尾⼤火」的論述,只是政府造地⾃編⾃導⾃演的⼀台戲!
近期李家翹的《供⽔香港:地緣政治、⽔務建設與農業發展 (1940–1970 年代)》(2025)⼀ 書,則探討了港英政府⼤興⽔利,既削弱了原居⺠的⼟地聯繫,亦⽀援非原居⺠轉向蔬菜種植,締造了同期香港農業的榮景,和當年的輕⼯業蓬勃實不遑多讓。
港英政府1960、1970年代通過積極的規劃及⼟地政策,扶助香港農業和出⼝⼯業發展;隨著1980、1990年代供港蔬菜⼤增、⼯業⼤量北移,⼟地政策再加上聯繫匯率,復為新興的⾦融地產霸權奠下基礎,直⾄香港回歸多年後仍歷久常新。關於這些,相信很多⼈都看過潘慧嫻的《地產霸權》(2010)⼀書,在此不贅。
多年後回看,為何香港「放任⾃由經濟」(laissez -faire)的神話如此成功,以⾄普遍香港⼈長期奉為⾦科⽟律,跡近宗教信仰?除了有賴主流經濟學界⼤⼒塗脂抹粉,恐怕中國因素亦不可或缺 ——作為全球最⼤的社會主義國家,甚⾄⼀度出現極左的瘋狂亂象,香港作為危牆旁邊不堪⼀擊的累卵,便得以社會主義的反⾯樹立形象,充當⾃由⺠主世界的橋頭堡——香港政治經濟從來⼲脫不了地緣政治的影響。
直⾄55年後的今⽇,儘管中國特⾊的社會主義已成明⽇⿈花,但「恐共」作為「放任⾃由經濟」的主要基礎,仍然⼒久不衰。香港⼈⼼⽬中的所謂⾃由⺠主,仍然是只要政府(那怕只是在表⾯上)作出最少的⼲預,市場經濟便能發揮最⼤的效能,⼈⼈便可「⼈盡其才、物盡其⽤」。
制度經濟學與⾏為經濟學
且讓我們再把⽬光拉回到25年前。2001年,柏克萊⼤學的George Akerlof獲頒諾⾙爾經濟學獎,開啟了⼀⼤批⾏為經濟學者、從邊緣另類走向主流的漫長歷史。Akerlof 最著名的概念是「檸檬的市場」(market of lemons)。「檸檬」是美國俚語,專指⼀些質素低劣的⼆⼿⾞。他在1970年⼀篇論⽂中提出,由於購⾞者和代理⼈的訊息不對稱,難以洞悉購入⼆⼿⾞的質素,立⼼不良的代理⼈遂有機可乘,以低價⼤量促銷「檸檬」,連帶正直的代理⼈亦無立⾜的市場空間。
檸檬的市場旨在說明,「委託─代理⼈」涉及訊息不對稱或不透明,代理⼈擁有較委託⼈為多的資訊,遂能從中上下其⼿,獲得不正當利益。這正好充分說明,個別買賣參與者由於認知上的局限, 往往無法達⾄最理性的市場抉擇——你以為市場調節已達⾄物盡其⽤,卻不知其實是⾃⼰在被⼈利⽤!⾏為經濟學者雖然沿⽤經濟學的個體⽅法論,但就引入更多影響⼈類經濟⾏為的社會、⽂化,以⾄⼼理因素的觀點。Daniel Kahneman與Vernon Smith(2002)、Robert Shiller(2013)、 Richard Thaler(2017)相繼獲獎,令⾏為經濟學者的風頭⼀時無兩。
與此同時,Elinor Ostrom(2009)、Alvin E. Roth(2012)、Abhijit Banerjee和Esther Duflo (2019)、Robert B. Wilson和Paul R. Milgrom(2020),以⾄過去兩年的Daron Acemoğlu團隊和Joel Mokyr等⼈,獲頒諾⾙爾經濟學獎的制度經濟學者,⼈數和比重就更⼤。事實上,他們對歷史、政策和制度的重視,與傳統上社會學和政治學的視⾓更為接近;相反與阿當·斯密所代表的主流經濟理論,則相去甚遠。
在此不得不特別提及Elinor Ostrom,她其實是亞利桑那⼤學的政治學者,亦是歷史上⾸位獲頒經濟學獎的女性(第⼆位是Esther Duflo)。Ostrom以研究「共同資源」(common pool resources)著稱,⼒陳共享資源的⺠主開放管理,在歷史上的成功例⼦多不勝數。直⾄資本主義市場體制成熟之後,各國政府和執法機構強⼒介入、⼲預市場,私有產權的「圈定」(enclosure)⽅才⼤規模出現;但過分為利是圖的市場傾向,卻弔詭地反令資源被過度耗⽤。主流經濟學所建構的產權神話,恰巧正是⾼度貧富懸殊、全球⽣態危機、⼈類共同悲劇的根源。
關於⾏為經濟學和制度經濟學的貢獻,我曾在《經濟學?講呢啲!告別學者堅離地,回到經濟學經 濟》(2022)⼀書(第⼀⾄四章)詳盡介紹,有興趣可以到嶺南⼤學⽂化研究及發展中⼼或理⼯⼤學圖書館的網站下載,在此不贅。這裡先講對制度經濟學影響深遠的波蘭尼。
波蘭尼:放任⾃由經濟是計劃出來的!
追本溯源,另類和主流經濟學呈現巨⼤的鴻溝,則⼤概可從約80年前的⼆戰前後說起。法⻄斯主義(同時亦作為另⼀種經濟學說)已成強弩之末,資本主義和社會主義的冷戰⼆元格局形成,經濟學成為最主要的意識形態戰場之⼀。同樣在《經濟學?講呢啲!》⼀書的導⾔中,我已開宗明義地指 出,1944年兩位來⾃奧地利的經濟學⼤師——海耶克(Friedrich Hayek)和波蘭尼(Karl Polanyi),分別出版了《到奴僕之路》(The Road to Serfdom)和《鉅變》(The Great Transformation),對那個歷史階段的全球政治經濟危機,提出了迥異的診斷和配⽅。
海耶克隨即在美國⼤受歡迎,其後並前赴芝加哥⼤學任教,普遍被認定為當代新⾃由主義的奠基⼈。當時歐美仍是由凱恩斯主義(Keynesianism)的福利國家主導,芝加哥學派只是位處邊緣的學術⼩圈⼦。直⾄1970年代福利國家發展停滯不前,右翼思潮漸漸取得政治上風,新⾃由主義遂被當權者奉為⾦科⽟律,芝⼤學者則儼然以國師的⾝分⾃居——故在那年代學成歸來的香港本⼟第⼀代學者,在同樣右傾的港英殖⺠地統治下,難免也就把市場⾄上的信仰照單全收。
波蘭尼則堅持社會⺠主的信念,被奉為新⾃由主義最有⼒的批判者。其學說⾃此⾄終只流⾏於社會科學領域,並成為全球化年代、經濟危機疊起、貧富懸殊急劇惡化下最重要的批判⼯具。但其倡導的實體經濟研究(substantivist economics),始終並未對主流的形式主義經濟學(formalist economics)構成任何威脅。在《鉅變》中,波蘭尼最主要的論斷在於:所謂的市場經濟並非⾃然形成的,它實際是⼈為⼲預的結果。他在書中的名句⼀針⾒⾎指出:「放任⾃由經濟是計劃出來 的,計劃本⾝卻不是!」(Laissez-faire was planned; planning was not!)
波蘭尼進⽽指出,⼈不是商品。包括⼈、⼟地、環境……等⼀系列現時被普遍稱為「經濟資源」、 「⽣產資料」的東⻄,在市場經濟出現之前的⼈類歴史中早已存在。⼆百多年來,「商品化」 (commodification)和市場經濟的⼤趨勢,正是⼀個不斷將⼈變成「⼈⼒資源」,將⼟地變成「⼟地資源」,將環境變成「天然資源」……的過程,逐步令地球上所有物種的功能單⼀化、價值平⾯化、利益短期化……然後,便再沒有然後。
現代國家1.0:市場經濟得以建構的奠基⽯
波蘭尼最廣為⼈知的概念是「嵌入性」(embeddness),意指市場活動原是像鑽⽯那樣,「鑲嵌」在介指或頸鏈之上,並不會單獨拿出來把玩——在傳統社會裡,市場乃「嵌入」在制度、⽂化、社區、⼈際網絡等廣泛社會關係內,並非單獨運作的社會部⾨——直⾄近⼆百多年市場經濟的出現,⼈、⼟地、環境……等開始「脫嵌」,⽅才好像能夠獨立於社會,形成彷彿懂得「⾃我調節」(self-regulated)的市場。
當然,「⼈⼒資源」、「⼟地資源」和「天然資源」不會⾃⾏演化,⾃動對號入座變成市場經濟的⼀部分。對波蘭尼⽽⾔,這絕對是⼀場⾃上⽽下、精⼼策劃的⼤戲,主⾓正是同樣在⼗⼋世紀末興起的現代國家——傳統社會只存在地⽅上的市場活動,通常不出⽅圓幾⼗⾥的範圍;⼜或是另⼀極端的遠程、跨國珍稀商品交易活動,例如絲綢之路所代表的那樣;直到現代國家體制的確立,全國性市場和經濟發展秩序,才得以有組織和具規模地打造——政府介入並非⾃由市場的對立,相反強 ⼤政府才是市場建構的必要條件。
美國立國及其後的⼀連串發展,正好全⾯印證了波蘭尼的學說。在《獨立宣⾔》通過後的頭⼗年,《邦聯條例》(Articles of Confederation)轄下的⼗三州,⾯對州與州之間的貿易壁疊、貨幣混亂和債務危機,形成市場分裂和經濟嚴重不穩定。直⾄1787年《美國憲法》(Constitution of the United States of America)通過,其後⼤⼤加強華盛頓的中央政府職能,建立全國性的商貿法規和 財稅體系;開國元勳 Alexander Hamilton(印在⼗美元紙幣上的頭像)著⼿打造中央銀⾏、⼯業政策及全國性基建;同時⼤⼒促進⻄部擴張、⼟地開發及輸入⿊奴,完全證明了波蘭尼指稱國家促成商品化的論說。
在《鉅變》的論述中,令市場經濟得以確立的最後⼀塊拼圖,不是別的,卻是以斯密為⾸的古典經濟學家及其理論。他們實堪稱⾃由市場的神學家,傳播市場作為⾄⾼無上的永恆定律,乃是⼈類社會發展的理想和終極⽬標;還參與設計各類相關的制度和政策,強制⼈、⼟地、環境……等的商品化,卻同時致⼒掩飾政府居中扮演的⾓⾊……凡此種種,無不源於經濟學家編造出來的市場神話。 完全可以肯定地說,沒有經濟學家天⾺⾏空的想像,並且積極參與設計和推動,現代市場經濟根本 不會出現。
現代國家2.0:市場經濟賴以延續的還魂丹
當然,現代國家建構市場經濟,只是整個故事的開端;在⼆戰期間出版的《鉅變》中,真正的好戲還在後頭。波蘭尼在書中提出「雙向運動」(double movement),正是另⼀⾄關重要的概念—— 前述市場建構帶來的商品化運動,不過只是銅幣的⼀⾯;銅幣的另⼀⾯,則是市場必然衍⽣的「反向運動」(counter movement),它為國家帶來了全然不同的挑戰。
此乃指⾃上⽽下強⼒推動的商品化,服務於市場經濟的所謂供求定律、經濟效率和成本效益的不斷提升、資本主義利潤的最⼤化,最後必然導致⼈、⼟地、環境……等的嚴重損耗,傳統社會制度、 ⽂化、社區、⼈際網絡等的強烈破壞,必然造成強烈反彈。但凡是市場經濟帶來的負⾯社會影響, 經濟學家稱之為「界外效應」(externalities),彷彿那並不屬於市場的⼀部分,然後便事不關⼰、 ⼰不勞⼼;但社會卻必定會加倍⼤⼒反抗,⼒圖在商品化過程中避免受害,波蘭尼稱之為「社會⾃我保護」(society self-protection)。
⾃⼗九世紀⼯業⾰命全⾯展開,各地的勞⼯運動和社會運動遍地開花,無不對各國政府構成巨⼤壓⼒。為了令市場經濟得以延續,並且在劇烈的國際競爭中倖存,現代國家便不得不進⼀步介入市場,既幫經濟學家和界外效應「擦屁股」,制定各種福利及保障政策;亦為市場既得利益者護航, 確保利潤源源送到他們⼿中;更對外進⾏帝國主義擴張及開拓殖⺠地,為所謂的⾃由貿易尋找新的資源和市場。凡此種種,當然並不會削弱、反⽽只會宿命地不斷擴⼤政府的介入——直到今天, 「令美國再度強⼤」,何嘗不正是⼆百多年來宿命的延續?!
波蘭尼在《鉅變》的深刻洞⾒乃在於:⼆⼗世紀初發⽣的兩場⼤戰,正是市場經濟毫無節制地肆意擴張之後,國家介入必然導致的連鎖反應和沉重後果。《鉅變》成書於⼆戰期間的倫敦,實在是由⾎淚寫成醒世恒⾔。然⽽,⼈類總是忘記過去的歷史教訓,因此風⽔佬總能呃你⼗年⼋年;但⼆⼗世紀初的悲劇歷史今天會否重演?相信不⽤⼗年⼋年便有分䁱。
布洛維:⾃我保護社會和公⺠社會
美國社會學界無⼈不識的布洛維(Michael Burawoy,1947 – 2025),在⼀年前不幸因⾞禍意外去世。在我的眼中,他除了是⼀位舉⾜輕重的⾺克思主義學者,對波蘭尼的研究同樣不容忽視;他的學說主要涉及經濟社會學的範疇,但對政治社會學的意義同樣重⼤。 這裡主要介紹布洛維⼀份超長篇的論⽂:〈For a Sociological Marxism: the Complementary Convergence of Antonio Gramsci and Karl Polanyi〉(2003),⾜⾜有70⾴的長度,差不多等於⼀本⼩書。雖然⽂章並不太易明⽩,但卻提供了異常豐富的理論資源,我⼀直覺得是社會學必備的讀本,⼤家不妨在柏克萊⼤學其網站下載試看。⽂章主要介紹和對比了⼆⼗世紀初、兩位對社會學貢獻巨⼤的理論家,除了波蘭尼以外,還有葛蘭⻄( Antonio Gramsci)。後者是意⼤利⾰命家,曾被墨索⾥尼監禁長達⼗年,卻在獄中寫下不朽的《獄中扎記》(Prison Notebooks)。近期經常被⼈重提的⾦句:「舊世界正在死去,新世界正挣扎著誕⽣:在此期間怪物横⾏」,正是來⾃他的⼿筆。
布洛維提出在過去⼆百多年,市場和國家的⼒量均在不斷蠶食社會,⾄⼆⼗世紀初達到了歷史的頂峰。當時波蘭尼和葛蘭⻄不約⽽同地指出,歷史並不如主流經濟學家所認定般,必然形成市場經濟的全⾯進據;但亦不會如⾺克思所預⾔般,必然邁向社會主義的全能政府。既然歷史沒有命定的⽅向和⽬的地,則社會學最主要的使命,便是重新發掘社會——相對於市場和國家——多元開放的各種潛能;社會拒絕被吞噬的韌性和活⼒,正是⼈類仍能不斷修正犯錯的動⼒泉源。
對此葛蘭⻄的關注更多在政治上:他提出「公⺠社會」(civil society)位處國家的外圍,正是專制 和反專制權⼒⾓逐的主要場所,其理論奠下了百年來公⺠社會理論的基礎,對理解⾃由⺠主體制的穩定不可或缺。然⽽,布洛維認為葛蘭⻄只提出其然,卻並未說明其所以然——為何公⺠社會能迸發出⾃主⾃立的潛⼒,⾜以和財雄勢⼤的國家機器分庭抗禮?對此波蘭尼把焦點轉到經濟上:現代社會的潛能乃源於市場經濟的砥礪,社會能夠在雙向運動中變得遇強愈強——因此,社會⾃我保護 正好為公⺠社會的理論,提供恰如其分的必要補充。
當然,正如布洛維在⽂中⼀再強調,畢竟⼈類受著客觀歷史情景的各種限制,社會⼒量並非就此便能抗衡市場和國家;但歷史卻總充滿著可變性和多變性,全賴⼈們⼀起去主動發掘和創造——就在250年前,斯密創造了市場經濟,美國元勳則創造了⾃由⺠主——站在廿⼀世紀初的重⼤歷史關⼝上,我們⼜能夠想像出⼀個怎樣的未來?
From The Wealth of Nations to the Declaration of Independence —Dedicated to Michael Burawoy (1947–2025)
250 years ago, at the close of the Enlightenment and on the eve of the modern world, two events occurred which influences have never faded.
In March 1776, Adam Smith published “The Wealth of Nations”, radically transforming humanity’s understanding of the economy and laying the foundations of the market system. On July 4 of the same year, the United States adopted the “Declaration of Independence”, establishing the framework of liberal democracy and becoming a cornerstone of modern political thought.
My own academic field is economic sociology. It inevitably touches on both politics and economics, yet it also maintains a critical distance. Especially in the twenty-first century, one cannot avoid asking: how much substance remains in what we still call liberal democracy and market economy? This is no small question.
Hong Kong’s “Laissez-Faire Economy”
Let me begin with economics, and draw our attention back to Hong Kong 55 years ago. In 1971, Sir Philip Haddon-Cave succeeded John Cowperthwaite as Financial Secretary of the colonial government and gradually elevated the doctrine of “positive non-interventionism” into an official creed. With the publication of Milton Friedman’s “Free to Choose” (1980), Hong Kong was further celebrated as the last bastion of free-market capitalism. Since then, Hongkongers have worn this reputation as a badge of honor, believing deeply in the myth of the market—a faith that persists to this day.
It is also well known that Haddon-Cave’s years in office coincided with Sir Murray MacLehose’s “golden decade” of governance, during which the colonial government intervened heavily in housing, education, and healthcare. In reality, so-called “nonintervention” mainly meant that Hong Kong, unlike Singapore or Taiwan, did not pursue targeted industrial policies. For debates on Hong Kong’s industrial policy, one may consult Stephen Chiu’s “The Politics of Laissez-faire: Hong Kong’s Strategy of Industrialisation in Historical Perspective” (1994), though probably few had read it before.
Equally well known is the fact that the colonial government’s massive land reclamation and new town construction in the 1960s and 1970s provided the essential infrastructure for Hong Kong’s industrialization. This inevitably brings us to the Shek Kip Mei fire of Christmas 1953 —remembered as the origin of public housing policy. Yet Alan Smart’s “The Shek Kip Mei Myth” (2006) masterfully exposed this narrative as a carefully staged performance: the fire was used to justify land creation rather than initiate welfare reform.
More recently, Lee Ka-kiu’s “Supplying Water to Hong Kong” (2025) shows how massive waterworks projects simultaneously weakened Indigenous land ties and supported the shift of non-Indigenous farmers toward vegetable production, creating a golden age of agriculture that rivaled light industry at the time.
Through land and planning policies in the 1960s and 1970s, the colonial government supported agriculture and export industries. In the 1980s and 1990s, with vegetable imports from China and industrial relocation northward, these same land policies—combined with the linked exchange rate—laid the groundwork for a financial-real-estate hegemony that persists long after the handover. Many readers should be familiar with Poon Wai-han’s “Land and the Ruling Class” (2010), so I will not repeat it here.
Why did the myth of Hong Kong’s laissez-faire economy become so successful—almost a religious belief? Beyond the efforts of mainstream economists to embellish it, the “China factor” was crucial. As the world’s largest socialist state—and at times a site of radical extremism—China served as the perfect foil. Hong Kong, a fragile egg beside a trembling wall, became a symbolic frontline of the free world. Its political economy has never been free from geopolitics.
Even today, fifty-five years later, although “socialism with Chinese characteristics” has faded, anti-communism remains the ideological foundation of laissez-faire. In the Hong Kong imagination, liberal democracy still means minimal government and maximal market efficiency —where everyone and everything supposedly finds their best use.
Institutional and Behavioral Economics
Let us move to 25 years ago. In 2001, George Akerlof of UC Berkeley won the Nobel Prize in Economics, marking the rise of behavioral economics from the margins to the mainstream. His famous concept, the “market for lemons,” describes how information asymmetry allows dishonest sellers to dominate markets, driving out honest ones.
The concept illustrates how rational choice fails under asymmetric information: participants are often exploited without realizing it. Markets, rather than finding the best uses, are being used instead. Behavioral economists retained methodological individualism but introduced social, cultural, and psychological factors. Nobel Prizes awarded to Kahneman, Smith, Shiller, and Thaler confirmed the field’s rise.
At the same time, institutional economists—Ostrom, Roth, Banerjee and Duflo, Wilson and Milgrom, Acemoglu’s team, and Joel Mokyr last year—have been even more prominent. Their focus on history, policy, and institutions brings them closer to sociology and political science than to Smithian orthodoxy.
Elinor Ostrom deserves special mention. A political scientist and the first woman to win the economics Nobel, she demonstrated that shared resources have been managed democratically and sustainably throughout history. Large-scale enclosure emerged only with capitalism, and paradoxically, profit-driven markets have accelerated resource depletion. The myth of private property lies at the heart of our extreme wealth gap and ecological crisis.
I have detailed these developments in detail in “Economics? I Can Do!” (2022), chapters 1–4. Here I focus instead on Karl Polanyi, who was significantly linked with the development of institutional economics.
Polanyi: Laissez-Faire Was Planned
The deep divide between orthodox and alternative economics dates back to World War II. In 1944, two Austrian thinkers published two landmark books: Friedrich Hayek’s “The Road to Serfdom” and Polanyi’s “The Great Transformation”. Their diagnoses could not have been more different.
Hayek’s ideas flourished in the U.S. and later became the ideological foundation of neoliberalism. Polanyi, by contrast, remained a critical voice within the social sciences. His core insight was devastatingly simple: markets are not natural—they are planned. His famous line states: “Laissez-faire was planned; planning was not.”
For Polanyi, humans, land, and nature are not commodities. Yet capitalism has turned them into “resources,” flattening value, shortening time horizons, and homogenizing life. This process leads nowhere but crisis.
The Modern State 1.0: Building the Market
Polanyi’s concept of “embeddedness” explains how markets were once embedded in social relations. Only with modern states did markets become “disembedded,” appearing selfregulating. This was no accident—it was a top-down project of the modern state.
The early United States proves the point. Under the “Articles of Confederation”, markets fragmented. The 1787 Constitution strengthened federal power, created national regulations, and enabled Hamilton’s industrial policy, central banking, and westward expansion— confirming Polanyi’s theory that states create markets.
As an indispensable part of this puzzle, classical economists served the theologians of this new faith, disguising state power behind myths of natural order. Without their imagination and engineering, the modern market would never have existed.
The Modern State 2.0: Sustaining the Market
Polanyi’s second great concept, “the double movement”, explains how market expansion inevitably provokes social resistance. Commodification destroys social life, and society responds with self-protection—labor movements, welfare states, and regulation.
To survive global competition, states intervene even more: welfare at home, imperialism abroad, profits for vested interests. This logic persists up to today. “Make America Great Again” is merely the latest expression of a 250-year trajectory.
Polanyi’s most haunting insight is that the world wars in early 20th century were the result of unrestrained market expansion. “The Great Transformation” was written in London during WWII, and you can feel the weight of its argument. History repeats itself not because we forget, but because we refuse to learn.
Burawoy: Self-Protecting Society and Civil Society
Michael Burawoy (1947–2025), who tragically died in a car accident last year, was not only a major Marxist sociologist but also a crucial interpreter of Polanyi. His 70-page essay “For a Sociological Marxism” (2003) remains essential reading.
Comparing Polanyi and Gramsci, Burawoy argued that markets and states have steadily consumed society, but history is not destined toward either total markets or total states. Sociology’s task is to rediscover society’s latent possibilities—its resilience and creativity.
While Gramsci emphasized civil society as the terrain of political struggle, Polanyi explained why society resists: market pressure strengthens collective capacity for self-defense. Together, they reveal society’s enduring power.
As Burawoy reminds us, history remains open. 250 years ago, Smith imagined the market, and the Founders imagined democracy. Standing at today’s historical crossroads, what future can we imagine?
Further Reading
Sung Ming Chow (2026), Demotopia: an Exploration of Democracy, Artificial Intelligence, Evolution, and Human Destiny. Forthcoming.



